Before the Second World War
"Francophobia" in the U.S. reverses the earlier pattern of a
"Francophilia."
In patriotic American contexts, France was characterized as the first ally
of the American revolutionaries. When the Marquis de Lafayette toured the
United States in (1824-1825), he was accorded a hero's welcome as the first
American celebrity, and numerous new settlements were named Lafayette,
Fayette and Fayetteville.
Harvard University professor and former U.S. Assistant Secretary of the
Treasury A. Piatt Andrew summed up this Francophile tradition, when he
wrote: "Few in number and limited in their activities, this little band of
American ambulance drivers in France is of course insignificant when
compared with the tens of thousands of young Frenchmen who crossed the
ocean as soldiers and sailors to help America in 1777. To the valor and
devotion of these Frenchmen we owe our very existence as an independent
nation, and nothing that Americans
have done for France during these last hard years of trial can be thought
of---without embarrassment---in relation with what Frenchmen did for us in
those unforgettable years of our peril from 1777 to 1781."
--
--
http://www.u-s-history.com/pages/h681.html
He entered the French army at an early age, rising to the rank
of captain. Lafayette shared with many of his countrymen an
enthusiasm for the ideals put forth in America's Declaration of
Independence,
and with typical bravado he invested his own funds to outfit a ship and
sailed
for America in April 1777. He landed in South Carolina then headed north to
join the forces of George Washington, with whom he established a lasting
friendship during the travails at Valley Forge.
Serving as an unpaid volunteer on Washington's staff, Lafayette was wounded
at Brandywine and served later at Monmouth and in New Jersey. His service
was
rewarded with a promotion to major general, but in 1779 he returned to
France
to promote America's interests. Later in 1779, Lafayette returned, bearing
news of imminent French naval aid. He also served on the board of judges
that
condemned the spy, John André.
In 1781, Lafayette led American forces in Virginia against both Benedict
Arnold and Lord Cornwallis. Once again, he returned to France and served as
a
diplomatic aid to Benjamin Franklin during the peace negotiations.
--
The French Alliance
Despite their success at the Battle of Saratoga, General Washington was
still
having difficulty getting the states to provide the necessary men and
supplies
for his army. He needed help.
Treaty with France
After the Battle of Saratoga, Congress decided to seek French support in
the
war. They sent Benjamin Franklin, who could speak French, to meet with King
Louis XVI and the French foreign minister.
France wanted to get revenge on Britain for the defeat in the French and
Indian War. They also wanted to ensure that Britain and America don't
resolve
their differences.
In February 1778, France and America signed a treaty which put France at
war
with Britain. This treaty was the first document to officially recognize
America as an independent state.
Spain, an ally of France, joined the alliance a year later.
Britain was now forced to defend its own territory of England against
possible
French and Spanish attacks.
--
To understand the background of the Revolutionary War, it is necessary
to understand the history of the preceding twenty years, and especially
the Seven Years War (1756-1763). The Seven Years War was fought by
the European colonial powers from Canada to the West Indies and from
Europe to far-flung colonial empires in India and the Phillippines. In
North America, we know the part of the Seven Years' war that was fought
here as the French and Indian Wars. The Seven Years' War was largely a
disaster for France and her allies. In the aftermath of the war, which
resulted in the loss of most French territory in North America and
India, the French instituted sweeping reform of the army and navy. The
French army that landed in Newport in 1781 was the product of this
thorough and fundamental reorganization.
The English victory, however, was dearly bought. The cost of fielding
the army that secured the safety of the English colonies was tremendous.
This expense, together with the continuing cost of protecting these
colonies after the war, led to English demands that the American
colonists contribute to the cost of their own protection. As a result, a
series of Acts of Parliament imposed a variety of taxes on the colonists
during the 1760s and early 1770s. For many colonists, the chains that
had linked them to Britain for almost 150 years became the chains of
servitude, foreign domination and unjust tyranny. These taxes ultimately
fueled the tensions and passions that burst into flames on Lexington
Green on April 19, 1775.
From the outbreak of armed rebellion in 1775, many in France sympathized
with the colonists. Young, idealistic French officers like the Marquis
de Lafayette volunteered their services and in many cases their personal
wealth to help equip, train and lead the fledgling Continental army. The
French government hoped to redress the balance of power that resulted
from the French humiliation in the Seven Years Wars, which gave
considerable economic and military advantages to Britain. While
maintaining formal neutrality, France assisted in supplying arms,
uniforms and other military supplies to the American colonists.
This clandestine assistance became open after the defeat of General
Burgoyne at Saratoga in 1777, which demonstrated the possibility of
British defeat in the conflict and led to French recognition of the
colonies in February 1778. As a result of the victory of the Continental
forces at Saratoga, Benjamin Franklin, who had gone to Paris as
ambassador in 1776, was able to negotiate a Treaty of Amity and Commerce
and a Treaty of Alliance with France. From this point, French support
became increasingly significant. The French extended considerable
financial support to the Congressional forces. France also supplied
vital military arms and supplies, and loaned money to pay for their
purchase.
French military aid was also a decisive factor in the American victory.
French land and sea forces fought on the side of the American colonists
against the British. At the same time, British and French (and to a
lesser extent, Dutch and Spanish) forces fought for colonial wealth and
empire around the world. From 1778 through 1783 -- two years after the
defeat of Cornwallis at Yorktown -- French forces fought the British in
the West Indies, Africa and India.
From the perspective of the American Revolution, however, the high point
of French support is the landing of five battalions of French infantry
and artillery in Rhode Island in 1780. In 1781, these French troops
under the command of Count Rochambeau marched south to Virginia where
they joined Continental forces under Washington and Lafayette.
Cornwallis, encamped on the Yorktown peninsula, hoped to be rescued by
the British navy. A French fleet under the command of Admiral DeGrasse
intercepted and, after a fierce battle lasting several days, defeated
the British fleet and forced it to withdraw. This left the French navy
to land heavy siege cannon and other supplies and trapped Cornwallis on
the Yorktown peninsula.
At that point, the defeat of Cornwallis was essentially a matter of
time. On September 14, 1781, the French and Continental armies completed
their 700 mile march and soon thereafter laid siege to the British
positions.
After a number of weeks and several brief but intense engagements,
Cornwallis, besieged on the peninsula by the large and well-equipped
French-American army, and stricken by dysentery, determined to surrender
his army.
On October 19, 1781, the British forces marched out between the silent
ranks of the Americans and French, arrayed in parallel lines a mile
long, and cast down their arms.
Abbé Robin, who witnessed the surrender, described the victorious
American and French forces present at the ceremony. "Among the
Americans, the wide variety in age -- 12 to 14-year old children stood
side by side with grandfathers -- the absence of uniformity in their
bearing and their ragged clothing made the French allies appear more
splendid by contrast. The latter, in their immaculate white uniforms and
blue braid, gave an impression of martial vigor despite their fatigue.
We were all astonished by the excellent condition of the English troops,
by their number -- we were expecting scarcely 3,000 and they numbered
more than 8,000 -- and by their discipline."
George Woodbridge summed up the Yorktown campaign in the following
words: "The strategy of the campaign was Rochambeaus; the French fleet
was there as a result of his arrangements; the tactics of the battle
were his; the American army was present because he had lent money to
Washington; in total naval and military participants the French
outnumbered the Americans between three and four to one. Yorktown was
Rochambeaus victory.
How strange it must have been for these French troops and their
new-found colonial allies, some of whom had fought each other as enemies
barely fifteen years earlier, to stand shoulder to shoulder in armed
conflict with Frances ancient enemy and the colonists blood kin! In
the end, these French soldiers became the hard anvil upon which the new
American nation was forged and the chains of British imperial domination
were finally broken.
--
"France's great folly"
Printed on Wednesday, March 19, 2003 @ 14:29:49 CST ( )
By John Chuckman
YellowTimes.org Columnist (Canada)
(YellowTimes.org) That great bellowing herd, sometimes called middle
America, is now making noises much like those of bull walruses in mating
season. The challenges issued in the form of belches and grunts are
directed
towards the French, a people who have the temerity to stand for principles
other than the one George Bush regards as central to humanity -- that is,
support America or else.
But France's great folly was not in her recent brave efforts to prevent a
needless war. No, it occurred more than two centuries ago when America won
her
independence from the British Empire.
As probably only a few dozen people in middle America even likely
appreciate
thanks to hyper-patriotic history texts, America's Revolutionary War
succeeded
only because the French supplied arms, cash, men, leadership, and a navy.
It
wasn't just help; it was decisive.
There were two key battles in the Revolutionary War. The first was Saratoga
in
1777. That stunning victory over Britain's General John Burgoyne was only
possible because of a secret French gun-running operation, much like those
undertaken by the CIA today, directed by Pierre de Beaumarchais, grand
adventurer and author of The Marriage of Figaro. America then was a
relatively
simple society with little capacity for manufacturing the weapons necessary
to
take on the British army.
Of course, France's secret assistance now may be viewed as the greatest
example of what intelligence people today call "blowback" in Western
history.
It makes the blowback of 9/11 -- directly attributable to the CIA's work in
Afghanistan -- seem tame by comparison. For France played mid-wife to the
birth of something that, a little more than two centuries later, would
arrogantly claim the right to determine the fate of the planet.
The main importance of the victory at Saratoga lay in gaining something the
revolting colonists desperately wanted: a formal treaty with France and a
great bounty of loans, gifts, and military forces. Of course, France's main
interest was to hurt its great rival, Britain, but then it certainly was
not
America's main interest to liberate France in 1944-5.
The deciding battle of the Revolutionary War was Yorktown in 1781, although
a
peace treaty was not settled until 1783. The truth is that Yorktown was
overwhelmingly a French victory. Washington didn't want to attack Yorktown,
but then Washington was a terrible general who lost almost every battle he
fought.
In 1781, Washington was fixated on a battle whose prospect was almost
certain
failure, an attack on New York. It was General Rochambeau's foresight and
planning that made Yorktown possible, but it took a lot of arguing to have
Washington finally agree. One of Washington's most trusted young generals,
the
Marquis de Lafayette, was given a substantial role in the action.
French Admiral de Grasse blocked a British fleet from entering the
Chesapeake
and evacuating the British army at Yorktown. French troops in the thousands
were among the most active. French engineers guided the building of the
entrenchments that sealed the fate of General Cornwallis's army in a
fortified
encampment that had its back to the water and no fleet to help.
The American forces carried French arms, and what pay they received came
from
the French treasury. It was during this last stage of the war that
Americans
massively lost interest. There had never been great enthusiasm, with about
a
third of the population against it from the beginning and another third
indifferent (contrary to myth, revolutions are almost always the work of
minorities) -- the real explanation, along with a stubborn unwillingness to
pay taxes still evident today, behind Washington's chronic lack of
resources
despite his countless pleas for help from the colonial governments. But by
the
late 1770s, Americans had become even more indifferent. It was around this
time that M. Duportail, a French officer serving under Washington, made his
famous observation about there being more enthusiasm for the Revolution in
the
cafes of Paris than he saw in America.
America never repaid the massive loans made by the French. Years later,
when
France underwent the agonies of a much more terrible revolution,
then-President Washington maintained a very cool distance. Even when poor
old
Tom Paine was rotting in a French jail, expecting any day to be executed,
Washington ignored his pleas for assistance. This was the same Tom Paine
whose
Common Sense and Crisis Papers were so important in stirring support for
America's revolution.
Well, despite the great chorus of gastric disturbance just south of here, I
shall proudly continue wearing my beret. After all, it was the wonderful
Ben
Franklin who said that every man has two countries, his own and France.
[John Chuckman is former chief economist for a large Canadian oil company.
He
has many interests and is a lifelong student of history. He writes with a
passionate desire for honesty, the rule of reason, and concern for human
decency. He is a member of no political party and takes exception to what
has
been called America's "culture of complaint" with its habit of reducing
every
important issue to an unproductive argument between two simplistically
defined
groups. John regards it as a badge of honor to have left the United States
as
a poor young man from the South Side of Chicago when the country embarked
on
the pointless murder of something like three million Vietnamese in their
own
land because they happened to embrace the wrong economic loyalties. He
lives
in Canada, which he is fond of calling "the peaceable kingdom."]
John Chuckman encourages your comments: ***@YellowTimes.org
YellowTimes.org is an international news and opinion publication.
YellowTimes.org encourages its material to be reproduced, reprinted, or
broadcast provided that any such reproduction identifies the original
source,
http://www.YellowTimes.org. Internet web links to
http://www.YellowTimes.org
are appreciated.
==
http://odur.let.rug.nl/~usa/H/1990/ch2_p13.htm
An Outline of American History (1990)
Chapter Two
Colonies gain victory and freedom (13/13)
From the time the Declaration of Independence was signed, France had not
been
neutral. The government had been eager for reprisal against England ever
since
the defeat of France in 1763. Moreover, enthusiasm for the American cause
was
high: the French intellectual world was itself in revolt against feudalism
and
privilege. Still, though France had welcomed Benjamin Franklin to the
French
court and had given the United States aid in the form of munitions and
supplies, it had been reluctant to risk direct intervention and open war
with
England.
After Burgoyne's surrender, however, Franklin was able to secure treaties
of
commerce and alliance. Even before this, many French volunteers had sailed
to
America. The most prominent among them was the Marquis de Lafayette, a
young
army officer, who, in the winter of 1779-80, went to Versailles and
persuaded
his government to make a real effort to bring the war to an end. Soon
afterward, Louis XVI sent to America an expeditionary force of 6,000 men
under
the Comte de Rochambeau. In addition, the French fleet aggravated the
difficulties the British were having in supplying and reinforcing their
forces, and Frenchmen joined with American blockade runners in inflicting
severe losses on British commerce.
In 1778, the British were forced to evacuate Philadelphia because of
threatened action by the French fleet. During the same year, in the Ohio
Valley, they suffered a series of setbacks which assured American
domination
of the northwest. Nevertheless, the British continued to press the war in
the
south. Early in 1780 they captured Charleston, the principal southern
seaport,
and overran the Carolina country. The following year they made an effort to
conquer Virginia. But the French fleet, which temporarily gained control of
American coastal waters that summer, ferried Washington's and Rochambeau's
troops in boats down Chesapeake Bay. Their combined armies, totaling 15,000
men, penned in Lord Cornwallis' army of 8,000 at Yorktown on the Virginia
coast. On October 19, 1781, Cornwallis surrendered.
When the news of the American victory at Yorktown reached Europe, the House
of
Commons voted to end the war. Peace negotiations began in April 1782 and
continued through November, when preliminary treaties were signed. These
were
not to take effect until France concluded peace with Great Britain. In
1783,
they were signed as final and definitive. The peace settlement acknowledged
the independence, freedom, and sovereignty of the 13 states, to which it
granted the much coveted territory west to the Mississippi, and set the
northern boundary of the nation nearly as it runs now. The Congress was to
recommend to the states that they restore the confiscated property of the
loyalists.
==
http://www.u-s-history.com/pages/h1312.html
The Yorktown Campaign
Summer and Fall of 1781
From todays perspective, it is difficult to appreciate the long odds faced
by
Americans and their French allies in the Yorktown campaign of 1781. The
prospects for George Washington and his northern army at the start of the
year
were not bright. They were keeping a lonely vigil outside of New York City,
monitoring the actions of Sir Henry Clinton's vastly superior British
forces.
The situation in the South also was dismal. The Americans had won an
important
victory at Cowpens (January 1781), but later suffered a string of defeats.
The
British commander, Lord Charles Cornwallis, completed his sweep through the
Carolinas and in May entered Virginia to root out the sources of American
resistance.
Further, the American populace was weary of the war, the government was
broke
and soldiers in all theaters were not inclined to commit to lengthy terms
of
service.
Nonetheless, it became evident to Washington and his French allies that a
possible opportunity was developing to trap Cornwalliss army in a position
where they could not be resupplied or reinforced. To accomplish this,
however,
would require moving two armies, one American and the other French, over
450
miles to Virginia. If those movements were detected early on by the
British,
then the scheme would collapse and a possibly disastrous encounter would
occur
in the North. Further risk was provided by the uncertainty of French naval
aid. If Chesapeake Bay could not be temporarily sealed off from the British
fleet, then Cornwallis would be reinforced by sea and stand an excellent
chance of defeating his exhausted opponent in Virginia.
The gamble paid off for Washington. Events in different locations evolved
in a
manner that enabled the allied armies to march safely to their destination,
while the French navy managed to secure the Chesapeake for a brief time
before
a British relief fleet arrived. These events included:
Cornwallis in Virginia (May - August 1781). Cornwallis conducted raids in
Virginia, refused to send troops to Clinton in New York and fortified a
defensive position taken at Yorktown.
Washington and Rochambeau to Virginia (August - September 1781). Washington
initially favored an attack on British positions in New York in 1781, but
later when his hand was forced, did a masterful job of moving his army to
the
southern theater.
Battle of the Capes (September 5, 1781). Good fortune, solid French
seamanship
and British ineptitude contributed to denying Admiral Graves the
opportunity
to reinforce or evacuate Cornwallis's army at Yorktown.
Siege of Yorktown (October 1781). Cornwallis's confidence in his ability to
hold Yorktown declined as enemy artillery pounded his fortifications,
supplies
and ammunition ran low, and an evacuation attempt failed.
Surrender at Yorktown (October 19, 1781). The failure of Clinton's relief
fleet to arrive, plus the numerical superiority of the Franco-American
forces,
necessitated Cornwallis's capitulation on terms approaching unconditional
surrender.
http://www.u-s-history.com/pages/h1313.html
Cornwallis in Virginia
May August 1781
Lord Charles Cornwallis, commander of British forces in the South, was
initially successful in his drive against rebel forces in the Carolinas by
winning a valuable, but costly victory over Nathanael Greene at Guilford
Courthouse (March 1781). Cornwallis then marched his army to the coast for
resupply at Wilmington, North Carolina. British progress in the South was
constantly harassed by guerilla-style attacks, particularly those of
Francis
Marion, Andrew Pickins and Thomas Sumter. It was evident to Cornwallis that
his opponents had a ready source of men and supplies in Virginia, which was
then in rebel hands.
In late April, Cornwalliss army marched north from Wilmington and arrived
at
Petersburg, Virginia, on May 20. His small force of 1,500 men was
supplemented
by another 4,000 soldiers already in the area, and later by replacements
sent
from New York by Sir Henry Clinton, bringing the southern army to a total
of
about 7,500 men.
The British launched a series of raids in Virginia aimed largely at
attempting
to corner the crafty Marquis de Lafayette. Those efforts were not
successful,
but in June the British under Benastre Tarleton managed to send the
Virginia
government fleeing from Charlottesville and narrowly missed capturing
Governor
Thomas Jefferson.
At this same time, Lafayettes small army was bolstered when it was
reinforced
by Anthony Wayne and later by Baron von Steuben.
Responding to somewhat confusing orders from Clinton, Cornwallis moved
eastward toward the coast to take up a defensive position between the York
and
James rivers. From there he could be resupplied by Clinton or evacuated for
action in New York or elsewhere. The British army arrived at Yorktown on
August 1 and began to fortify its position there and also across the York
River on Gloucester Point.
http://www.u-s-history.com/pages/h1319.html
Washington and Rochambeau March to Virginia
Summer 1781
At meeting at Wethersfield, Connecticut, in May 1781, George Washington
met with Lieutenant General Comte de Rochambeau, the commander of French
land
forces in North America. The French reluctantly agreed to bring their West
Indian fleet into the war on behalf of the Americans, but did not commit to
where the ships would be deployed. Washington wanted this force to be used
in
a coordinated attack on Henry Clintons army in the New York City area.
The need for French cooperation was obvious Washingtons army in the
Hudson Highlands north of Manhattan numbered only about 3,500 men, while
Clintons force was more than 14,000.
The crucial decision about where the French Navy would participate was left
to the West Indian commander, François Joseph Paul, Comte de Grasse.
Two options existed: New York and Virginia.
Washington feared that committing his army to a campaign in the
South was an invitation to disaster. Lord Charles Cornwallis,
the British commander in the area, needed only to move his troops
into the interior of the Carolinas, live off the land and wait for
assistance from New York. Clinton could sail an army to Virginia much
more rapidly than Washington could by a forced march.
On July 5, French land forces arrived in the Hudson Valley from their
earlier base in Rhode Island. Lengthy preparations began for a combined
attack on New York. However, in mid-August Washington received a letter
from Admiral de Grasse indicating that the French fleet would be available
for service in Chesapeake Bay by the end of the month and would remain
there
until October 15. The time limit for the fleets participation was imposed
by the high point of hurricane season in the Indies.
On August 20, American and French forces began moving south on their
journey
of more than 450 miles. Great efforts were made to make it appear that the
combined armies were headed toward a direct confrontation against Clinton
in
New York coastal areas. If the true intentions were discovered, Clinton
could
send reinforcements by sea to Cornwallis in Virginia.
Washington left a small force behind under the command of William Heath and
the bulk of the Franco-American force moved west and south. They marched
through New Jersey, covering 15 miles a day in good weather. It was not
until
September 1 and 2, when the army reached Philadelphia, that Clinton
realized
what had happened. The British command was disturbed, but not panicky;
they were convinced that the strength of the British fleet would prevent
matters in the southern theater from getting out of hand.
Washington faced another kind of crisis in Philadelphia. Troops had not
been
paid and no funds were available. A mutiny was averted when Robert Morris,
the prime procurer of munitions and money during the war, secured the
needed
funds from Rochambeau.
The armies proceeded to Head of Elk in Maryland and arrived in Baltimore
on September 12. Three days later, Washington and Rochambeau met with the
leader of American forces in the South, the Marquis de Lafayette. On the
17th,
Washington and Rochambeau boarded the Ville de Paris and plotted strategy
with
Admiral de Grasse, who had arrived in the Chesapeake as promised.
It was decided that de Grasse would seal off the mouth of the bay to deny
entry to the anticipated British fleet. Meanwhile, the land forces would
take
up
positions surrounding Cornwallis in Yorktown. Trenches would be constructed
and
artillery set in place.
On September 28, American and French forces left Williamsburg and marched
to the areas surrounding Yorktown, where they initiated a siege of British
fortifications.
http://www.u-s-history.com/pages/h1320.html
Battle of the Capes
September 5, 1781
In May 1781, Admiral Comte de Barras arrived in Newport, Rhode Island with
the
long-awaited news that a major French fleet would render assistance to the
American cause in the late summer. That fleet, under the command of
François
Joseph Paul, Comte de Grasse, was en route to the West Indies and would
later
head to North America. De Barras, lacking sufficient strength to confront
the
British, sailed off for temporary refuge in Boston Harbor.
In mid-August, Admiral de Grasse sent word to George Washington that the
French fleet would sail for service in Chesapeake Bay and be available for
joint operations until mid-October. He was unable to make a longer
commitment
because he had to get his ships to safety at the height of the hurricane
season.
On August 25, a number of British ships under the command of Admiral Sir
Samuel Hood arrived in Chesapeake Bay. They searched for French ships and,
finding none, sailed off to New York to join Admiral Thomas Graves' larger
fleet. Graves took command of the combined force and sailed for the
Chesapeake
on August 31, arriving in the area on September 5.
Meanwhile, Admiral de Grasse arrived at the mouth of Chesapeake Bay on
August
28 with a fleet of 24 ships carrying 1,700 guns and 3,000 soldiers. The
land
forces were put ashore several days later and joined with the army of the
Marquis de Lafayette.
On September 5, Graves was astonished to find the French in possession of
Chesapeake Bay. De Grasse realized that conducting naval operations within
the
bay's confines would be difficult and sailed into the Atlantic waters off
the
Virginia coast. Most authorities agree that the inept Graves should have
struck as the French fleet proceeded in single file into open waters; he
did
not, which allowed them to form a battle line.
From one perspective, the two-hour Battle of the Capes ended in a draw. The
British sustained serious damage to six ships, one of which was later
purposely destroyed, and suffered around 300 casualties. The French saw
four
ships significantly damaged, and sustained more than 200 casualties.
Following
the encounter and continuing for the next few days, the two fleets drifted
south in sight of each other, but did not renew hostilities. From another
perspective, despite failing to deliver a knockout blow, De Grasse
succeeded
in his prime assignment to seal off the mouth of Chesapeake Bay and deny
Cornwallis opportunities for reinforcement or evacuation.
While Graves and de Grasse drifted down the Virginia coast, the smaller
French
fleet of Admiral de Barras arrived from Newport carrying Rochambeaus
supplies
and cannon, and sailed uncontested into Chesapeake Bay. Graves critics
cite
his failure to dispatch seaworthy vessels back to the bay, arguing that the
copper-sheathed bottoms of the British ships gave them a decided edge in
speed
and that they would likely have won a race back to the Chesapeake.
On September 10, Graves broke contact with the French and headed his
battered
fleet back to New York for repairs, leaving the French in total control of
the
Chesapeake and probably sealing Cornwallis's fate.
De Grasse then set about the task of transporting Washington's and
Rochambeau's forces from the northern Bay area to Williamsburg.
Siege of Yorktown
October 1781
Early in September 1781, Lord Charles Cornwallis remained confident about
his
force's security at Yorktown, where British troops had been fortifying
their
position atop a bluff on the south side of the York River. Reinforcement or
evacuation was to be provided by a Royal Naval fleet dispatched from New
York
by Sir Henry Clinton. That sense of assurance, however, was shaken when
word
of the Battle of the Capes arrived. By September 10, Admiral Thomas Graves
was
sailing his badly hammered fleet back to New York for repairs. Whether that
fleet could be restored in time to return to Virginia was a matter of deep
conjecture.
On September 28, the forces of Washington and General Rochambeau departed
from
Williamsburg and marched eastward a short distance to join the Marquis de
Lafayettes army outside of Yorktown. Two days later, in an attempt to
conserve his strength, Cornwallis pulled in soldiers that had been
stationed
in outer fortified positions, but enabled his enemy to creep forward and
man
those same positions.
The besieging French and American forces desired to dig trenches to allow
movement of big guns closer to British fortifications, but such activity
was
usually accomplished under cover of darkness; clear skies and moonlight had
made the work unsafe. Trenching began in earnest on October 6 and the heavy
bombardment of Yorktown followed three days later, which continued day and
night. Thousands of shells were fired and both sides sustained casualties,
particularly the defenders in Yorktown. Occasional skirmishes occurred
outside
the town where parties of redcoats were discovered foraging for food by
French
or American troops.
On October 14, allied forces stormed two redoubts held by the British.
Alexander Hamilton, who had long lobbied for a command, led one effort and
performed ably; the French succeeded in taking the other position. Guns
were
pulled up to the newly won locations, which could then command all parts of
the besieged town.
The following night, the British attempted to silence some of the cannon
that
were pounding Yorktown. Several hundred soldiers left the fort under the
cover
of an artillery barrage. They experienced some success by killing a number
of
allied soldiers and temporarily disabling a half-dozen cannon.
Cornwallis then discarded his hope for reinforcements and attempted a major
evacuation. He began to ferry his army across the York to British-held
Gloucester Point on the north bank. From there he hoped to make a forced
march
to evade the numerically superior allied armies leaving his sick and
wounded
soldiers behind. However, a major storm intervened and scattered the
transport
boats after a single crossing. The British army recongregated in Yorktown
in
the knowledge that their fate was sealed.
At 10 a.m. on October 17, Cornwallis signaled to his opponents that he
wanted
to parley and the guns at Yorktown fell silent.
On the same day, Clintons fleet, whose repairs had been long delayed by a
lumber shortage, was ready to sail. However, fate still did not cooperate
and
the British vessels had to wait another two days for favorable winds and
tides. On the 19th, the rescue fleet was finally at sea, but hundreds of
miles
to the south, Cornwalliss sword was being offered to the victors as a
token
of the surrender of the British army at Yorktown.
During the siege, the Americans sustained about 80 casualties, the French
more
than 200 and the British more than 500.
http://www.u-s-history.com/pages/h1322.html
Surrender at Yorktown
October 19, 1781
Following an abortive attempt to evacuate his army from Yorktown, Lord
Charles
Cornwallis faced the reality that aid from Sir Henry Clinton would not
arrive
in time. French and American guns resumed bombardment of the British
position
at dawn on October 17. By mid-morning, Cornwallis came to a decision and
sent a drummer to a visible location on the fortification, where he beat
out the
call for a parley. The guns were quickly silenced and a British officer
came
forward to the American lines; he was blindfolded and taken to confer with
George Washington.
Washington refused to make the same mistake that had been made four years
earlier by Horatio Gates in the surrender at Saratoga, where the defeated
soldiers were allowed to return to their homes in exchange for a promise
not
to reenter the war in North America at a later point. The obvious problem
with
such leniency was that those soldiers could be assigned to another theater,
thus replacing soldiers in that location who could then be sent to
America.1
Terms were negotiated on October 18 and included the following provisions:
surrendering soldiers were to march out of their fortification with colors
folded, surrender their arms at a predetermined location, then depart to
detention2
British officers were allowed to keep their side arms and to depart to
Britain, or to a British-occupied American port
officers and soldiers were allowed to retain personal possessions.
In a breech of military etiquette, Cornwallis declined to attend the
surrender
ceremony, claiming illness. The second in command, Brigadier General
Charles
OHara, filled that role. To avoid the humiliation of turning over
Cornwallis
sword to Washington known contemptuously to many British as General
Buckskin O'Hara attempted to present the token to General Rochambeau.
The
French commander refused to accept the sword and pointed to Washington.
When
OHara turned to make the presentation, Washington called on his
second-in-command, General Benjamin Lincoln, to accept. Thus, General
Buckskin
won some satisfaction in the wake of his humiliation at the surrender of
Charleston.
According to a widely recounted report, the defeated army departed to the
strains of The World Turned Upside Down, a popular song whose words in part
expressed the sentiments of the day:
If ponies rode men and grass ate cows,
And cats were chased into holes by the mouse . . .
If summer were spring and the other way round,
Then all the world would be upside down.
In all, more than 7,000 soldiers surrendered at Yorktown. Additionally,
more than 200 artillery pieces and enormous stores of small arms and
ammunition ended up in allied hands. Nevertheless, the last shots of the
war had not been
heard. Fighting, much of it bitter, would continue in the South for a
number of months. In late 1781, the British still had 30,000 soldiers in
America and controlled the vital cities of Charleston, Savannah and New
York. It was not until October 24 that Clintons fleet arrived; he was
apprised of the surrender and promptly returned to New York.
1. The Americans did not abide strictly by the terms of the Saratoga
surrender, claiming a technical violation of the agreement, and continued
to hold British and German soldiers in detention in Virginia.
2. Nearly 7,000 soldiers were detained for varying terms in prison camps in
Virginia, Pennsylvania and Maryland.